Biculturism and Marginalization Essays

Biculturism and Marginalization Essays Biculturism and Marginalization Essay Biculturism and Marginalization Essay * Ross-Sheriff ( 2011 ) commented that international migration forms have * changed as a effect of wide societal. political. economic. and environmental * tendencies and explained the causes of the drive forces were including war. * globalisation. urbanisation. and altering cultural norms sing societal functions and * duties ( Ross-Sheriff. 2011 ) . With these complex tendencies of migration * forms. Van Hear ( 2010 ) viewed migration as a procedure which was an built-in portion * of broader societal transmutations. but which besides had its ain internal kineticss with * other factors related to the migrating procedure. determining societal transmutation in their * ain manner. Migration was besides linked in complex ways to category. gender. coevals. * ethnicity and other societal factors. which were embodied in places in place and host * communities. and in work and domestic relationships. all of which might be * transformed in the class of the migratory procedure ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . To understand this complex procedure of migration. particularly under altering fortunes of one civilization to another. it might be utile to construct conceptual tools for understanding these ephemeral procedures in migration surveies and in societal scientific discipline more widely ( Van hear. 2010 ) . They besides include interceding agents and passages that need besides to be accounted for. every bit good as intersections among category. gender. coevals. ethnicity and other societal ruptures every bit good as the chief drive forces of migration ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . Of class there were other of import constructs such as dealingss between clip and infinite. between kineticss or procedures and results. and between construction and bureau that needed to acquire attending ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . However. it is impossible to discourse all different theoretical constructs involved in different types of migration procedure in the current limited survey. Rather. this survey tried to concentrate on psychological impacts such as cultural individuality and self-pride on migration through socialization procedures peculiarly on family- related migration because different forms of migration produced different communities and resulted in bring forthing different migratory individualities including changing degrees of psychological hurt ( Jones. 2008 ) . Further. few empirical surveies have focused on migrator grownups populations. Most migrators designation related literatures tended to associate more for striplings or immature kids because individuality formation might be peculiarly disputing in this cohort. particularly when the values and beliefs of their natal civilization differed significantly from those of the host society ( Sodowsky. Kwan. A ; Pannu. 1995 ; as cited in Farver. Narang. A ; Bhadha. 2002 ) . Therefore. this survey focused on cultural individuality and self-identification issues of grownup migrants’ themselves within a household construction harmonizing to different theoretical theoretical accounts relevant to version of new civilizations. because household was the basic instrument in the society ( Nesdale. Rooney. A ; Smith. 1997 ) . In fact. most cultural acquisition theories developed and evolved in 1990s. when international migration became a cardinal issue in international political relations at the beginning of 1990s. As Castle ( 2002 ) argued that migration. development and international dealingss were closely connected as migration was a major factor of transmutation for both sending and receiving states for different types of migrators ( Castle. 2002 ) . With this position. this survey by and large focused on those migration civilization acquisition theories developed in 1990 instead so looking at current positions in the most recent literatures. which really have evolved from these original theories in 1990s ( Castle. 2002 ) . As the findings from these research surveies has had been assorted or sometimes contradictory. it was of import to understand the exact nature of the relationship between migrator cultural designation and the socialization procedure both need to be specified and assessed decently with coherent measurings and theoretical premises ( Nesdale et Al. . 1997 ) . Important theoretical constructs: cultural individuality. socialization. biculturism. and marginalization. Harmonizing to Phinney ( 1990 ; as cited in Farver. Narang A ; Bhadha. . 2002 ) . cultural individuality and socialization were related but separate concepts. Cultural individuality involves an individual’s self-identification as a group member. a sense of belonging to an cultural group. attitudes toward cultural group of rank. and grade of cultural group engagement ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . The term socialization was defined in anthropology as those phenomena. which resulted when groups of persons holding different civilizations came into uninterrupted first-hand contact with subsequent alterations in the original form of either or both groups ( Redfield. Linton. A ; Herskovits. 1936 ; as cited in Birman. 1994 ) . Although socialization was a impersonal term in this context ( that is. alteration might take topographic point in either or both groups ) . in pattern. socialization tended to bring on more alterations in one of the groups than in the other ( Berry. 1990a ; as cited in Berry. 1997 ) Berry ( 1997 ) argued that in all plural societies. cultural groups and their single members. in both dominant and non-dominant state of affairss. must cover with the issue of how to acculturate. Harmonizing to Berry ( 1997 ) . four socialization schemes were introduced: assimilation. separation. marginalisation. and integrating. When persons do non wish to keep their cultural individuality and seek day-to-day interaction with other new civilizations. the assimilation scheme is defined. In contrast. when persons place a value on keeping on to their original civilization. and at the same clip wish to avoid interaction with others. so the separation is defined ( Berry. 1997 ) . When there is an involvement in both keeping one’s original civilization. while in day-to-day interactions with other groups. integrating is the option ; here. there is some grade of cultural unity maintained. while at the same clip seeking to take part as an built-in portion of the larger societal web ( Berry. 1997 ) . Last. when there is small possibility or involvement in cultural care ( frequently for grounds of implemented cultural loss ) . and small involvement in holding dealingss with others ( frequently for grounds of exclusion or favoritism ) so marginalisation is defined ( Berry. 1997 ) . However. this socialization categories theoretical account has been criticized methodologically ( Rudmin. 2003. 2009 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) because all four of Berry’s classs were represented in the same manner by making the two by two matrix of socialization classs between high and low. However. the cut off point between high and low was arbitrary and would differ across samples. doing comparings across surveies hard. ensuing in the fact that all four classs existed and were every bit valid ( Rudmin. 2003 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) and proposing that non all of Berry’s classs might be in a given sample or population. and that some classs might hold multiple subtypes ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . In peculiar. Berry ( 1997 ) viewed the term biculturism as mentioning to socialization that involved the single at the same time in the two civilizations that were in contact in integrative ways. which appeared to be a consistent forecaster of more positive results than the three options of assimilation. separation. or marginalisation. Berry and his co-workers ( Sam A ; Berry. 1995 ) assessed the socialization schemes of assorted immigrant groups in North America and the consequences showed that bicultural persons experienced less acculturational emphasis. anxiousness and fewer psychological jobs significantly. while marginalized persons suffered the most psychological hurt. including jobs with self-identification and cultural disaffection. which adversely affected their self-esteem ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . However. Shiraev and Levy ( 2007 ) explained acculturational emphasis as a negative feeling that a marginalized individual might see as a straitening psychological reaction to any unfamiliar cultural environment based on the premise that individual and groups undergoing any societal and cultural alteration should see a certain sum of psychological hurt. Generally. many early definitions of socialization focused on exposure to two civilizations at the same time as a civilization daze. which was a reactive province of specific pathology or shortage. instead than taking advantage of being bicultural ( Berry A ; Annis. 1974 ; Shiraev et Al. . 2007 ) . The cogency of marginalisation as an attack to socialization by Berry ( 1997 ) was besides questioned ( Del Pilar A ; Udasco. 2004 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . Schawartz et Al. argued that the likeliness that a individual would develop a cultural sense of ego without pulling on either the heritage or having cultural contexts would be less likely to. The marginalisation attack might be true merely for the little section of migrators who rejected both their heritage and receiving civilizations ( Berry. 2006b ) . Indeed. surveies utilizing through empirical observation based constellating methods have found little or nonexistent marginalisation groups and graduated tables that attempted to mensurate marginalisation typically had hapless dependability and cogency compared with graduated tables for the other classs ( Cuellar. Arnold. A ; Maldonado. 1995 ; Unger et Al. . 2002 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . As described earlier. the impact of migrator cultural individuality on psychological hurt had relatively diverse points of positions if they were either negative or positive reactions. depending on different theoretical frames. For illustration. Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel A ; Turner. 2001 ) and Self-Categorization Theory ( Turner. 1987 ) emphasized more on the importance to persons of their designation with peculiar societal groups. Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel A ; Turner. 2001 ; as cited in Yip. Gee. A ; Takeuchi. 2008 ) viewed a possible account for why cultural individuality might buffer the effects of favoritism. Harmonizing to this theory. persons chose from an array of possible societal individuality groups and. one time those groups were chosen. persons focused on the positive facets of their in-group. which helped to hike their ain regard. proposing that cultural individuality was more of import to their overall individuality ( Yip et al. . 2009 ) . In contrast. if ethnicity was a cardinal constituent of one’s individuality. it might really worsen the effects of favoritism. ensuing in a greater negative impact on mental wellness. harmonizing to self-categorization theory ( Turner. Hogg. Oakes. Reicher. A ; Wetherell. 1987 ; as cited in Yip et Al. . 2008 ) . proposing that people should be more in melody with environmental cues that were relevant to an of import facet of their individuality. That is. experiences of racial favoritism might be such a cue relevant to their cultural individuality. Indeed. research suggested that African American grownups and striplings who reported strong racial centrality were besides more likely to describe experiences of racial favoritism ( Neblett. Shelton. A ; Sellers. 2004 ; Sellers. Caldwell. Schmeelk-Cone. A ; Zimmerman. 2003 ; Sellers A ; Shelton. 2003 ; as cited in Yip et Al. . 2008 ) . However. despite this accent by societal theoreticians. they tended to bury the larger literature that involved with both ethnicity and the socialization procedure ( Liebkind. 1993 ; 1996 ; as cited in Nesdale. Rooney A ; Smith. 1997 ) . First of all. these different findings resulted from deficiency of inclusion of socialization itself as a variable methodologically when socialization was considered as a phenomenon in research designs ( Sam and Berry. 2006 ) . Without including socialization as a variable. the accounts for human behaviour similarities and differences across populations would stay uncomplete ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Second. a farther unfavorable judgment of the socialization literatures was that the same two socialization procedures. and the same four-acculturation classs. characterized all migrators equally- regardless of the type of migrator. the states of beginning and colony. and the cultural group in inquiry. harmonizing to Berry’s ( 1980 ) theoretical account and other similar attacks ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Finally. the huge bulk of surveies in the socialization literature have focused on behavioural socialization ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . That is. most widely used socialization steps included chiefly ( or merely ) points measuring linguistic communication usage and other cultural patterns ( e. g. . Cuellar. Arnold. A ; Maldonado. 1995 ; Stephenson. 2000 ; Szapocznik. Kurtines. A ; Fernandez. 1980 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) due to accepting the fact that cultural patterns might supply merely a just placeholder for cultural version ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . Theoretical models for socialization research Shiraev A ; Levy ( 2007 ) claimed that cross-cultural psychologists normally used three attacks to analyze human activities in assorted cultural scenes. They were the sociobiological attack. the sociological attack and eco-cultural attack ( Shiraev et al. . 2007 ) . In peculiar. the eco-cultural attack emphasized both the environment and the person were seen as unfastened and substituting systems ( Shiraev et al. . 2007 ) . presenting John Berry whom originally developed this theory further in modern-day cross-cultural psychological science. Shiraev et Al. ( 2007 ) besides pointed out that specializers should to be able to explicate how. why. and to what extent people differed from one another. when ecological. biological. cultural. and acculturation factors were identified and taken into consideration ( Berry. J. W. . Poortinga. Y. H. . Segall. M. H. . A ; Dasen. P. R. . 1992 ; as cited in Shiraev et Al. . 2007 ) . In related to the concerns pointed by Shiraev et Al. ( 2007 ) . Berry ( 1997 ) argued earlier there were of import links between cultural context and single behavioural development. showing what happened to persons who developed in one cultural context when trying to re-establish their lives in another one through his socialization research model. by corroborating the fact that socialization was one of the most complex countries of research in cross-cultural psychological science because the procedure involved more than one civilization and in two distinguishable senses ( Berry. 1997 ) . Harmonizing to Berry ( 1997 ) . the construct of socialization was employed to mention to the cultural alterations ensuing from different cultural groups encountered. while the constructs of psychological socialization and version were employed to mention to the psychological alterations and eventual results that occur as a consequence of persons sing socialization. In another words. socialization phenomena resulted from contact between two or more civilizations and research on socialization had to be comparative in order to understand fluctuations in psychological results that were the consequence of cultural fluctuations in the two groups in contact ( Berry. 1997 ) . In peculiar. this model viewed the integrating theoretical account of socialization schemes the most desirable among other schemes. sing it the same as the biculturalism theoretical account ( Berry. 1997 ) . For illustration. Berry and his co-workers ( Berry. 1980 ; Berry. J. W. . Kim. U. . Power. S. . Young. M. A ; Bujaki. M. . 1989 ; Berry. Kim. Minde. A ; Mok. 1987 ; Sam A ; Berry. 1995 as cited in Farver et Al. . 2002 ) Assessed the socialization schemes of assorted immigrant groups in North America and the consequence showed that integrating was the most psychologically adaptative attitude. reasoning that integrated or bicultural persons experienced less acculturational emphasis and anxiousness and manifested fewer psychological jobs than those who were marginalized. separated. or assimilated. whereas marginalized persons suffered the most psychological hurt. including jobs with self-identification and cultural disaffection. which besides affected their self-esteem ( Farver et al. . 2002 ) . However. Phinney. Cantu. and Kurtz ( 1997 ) found that American individuality was associated with self-esteem merely for non-Hispanic White persons. but non for other cultural groups. These assorted consequences as explained above raised two issues in the socialization literatures. First of all. cultural patterns might offer merely a replacement for cultural adpatations. as Portes and Rumbaut ( 2001 as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) mentioned that many Asiatic American immature grownups in their sample were non proficient in their native linguistic communications. even though they still perceived their designation with their parents’ states of beginning and maintained many of their values ( Schwarz et al. . 2010 ) . Second. most research workers on biculturism did non sufficiently specify an accurate operational definition of biculturism so that reading of those research consequences were debatable ( Birman. 1994 ) . Indeed. one determination in the United States. was that self-identification as American was markedly higher in non-Hispanic White persons than in cultural minority groups ( e. g. . Devos A ; Banaji. 2005 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) and many White Americans did non perceived themselves as members of an cultural group ( Schildkraut. 2007 ; as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) . In brief. different operational definition jobs of socialization arose from different theoretical theoretical accounts of socialization sing to their premises ( LaFromboise. Coleman. A ; Gerton. 1993 ) . LaFromboise et Al. ( 1993 ) assumed socialization as one of replacements among the biculturism theoretical accounts. Biculturism as defined in this theory was viewed as the alternation theoretical account. which implied an person in two civilization contacts could be competent in both civilizations without losing one of the cultures’ competences in distinguishable cultural contexts as alternation theoretical account. whereas. merger theoretical account meant a blended cultural individuality. consisting of a synthesis of facets of both civilizations ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . However. Berry’s ( 1997 ) incorporating attack of biculturism differed from the bicultural theoretical account ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ; as cited in Birman. 1994 ) and it emphasized more on the relationship between the two cultural groups based on its inexplicit premise that one of two civilizations were higher than the other within a individual societal construction ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . Benet-Martinez and co-workers found that blended bicultural persons tended to describe higher self-pride and lower psychological hurt than a fringy population ( Chen et Al. . 2008 as cited in Schwartz et Al. . 2010 ) because the consistent handiness of both cultural flows within the person’s mundane life increased the easiness of triping the right cultural scheme in conformity with their environmental state of affairss ( Schwartz et al. . 2010 ) . In contrast. Tadmor. Tetlock. and Peng ( 2009 ) argued that the bicultural theoretical account considered those fringy persons in positive ways. when there was small involvement in cultural care and small involvement in holding dealingss with others. proposing positive facets of being a fringy individual might be ( 1 ) sharing his or her status with others of the same original civilization ; ( 2 ) engaging in institutional patterns that were shared by other fringy people ; ( 3 ) sing no major defeat from societal outlooks ; and ( 4 ) still comprehending himself or herself to be a member of a group ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . Harmonizing to Sam and Berry ( 2006 ) . many surveies of how migrators coped with intercultural contacts had disagreements in the ways in which they were operationalized and measured. As no standardised or widely accepted socialization steps existed. it was necessary to plan a clear and expressed preparation of socialization instrument in order to measure socialization adequately ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Further Sam and Berry ( 2006 ) pointed out that most empirical surveies widely used a self-report type of questionnaires that had been recognized restrictions such as societal desirableness. stressing obtaining divergent proof by beginning of information other than the respondents’ studies. Therefore. it is critical to understand each theory within its specific premises and non to generalise across all state of affairss irrespective of their similar findings ( LaFromboise et al. . 1993 ) . As this survey discovered migrants’ socialization procedures so far within specific theoretical models. literature findings in different research were assorted as to whether persons could be extremely acculturated and at the same clip be strongly identified with their cultural group ( Farver. Narang. A ; Bhadha. . 2002 ) . These confounding jobs ab initio evolved because of the context in which migration agreements and their socialization procedures were basically transformed and progressively unsure due to globalisation ( Landolt A ; Da. 2005 ) . Shiraev A ; Levy ( 2007 ) suggested a new attack to cross-cultural psychological science in the 21st century. which was linked to the construct of globalisation. Globalization was defined as a proliferation of cross-border flow and multinational webs due to new engineerings of communicating and conveyance that allowed frequent and multi-directional watercourses of people. thoughts and cultural symbols ( Castle. 2010 ) . Castle besides argued that globalisation leads to major alterations in the character of international migration. In other words. the context for migratory incorporation has already changed radically and will go on to make so. The rise of multiculturalism itself instead than assimilation or biculturism is one mark of this. but is non the terminal of the narrative: new signifiers of individuality and belonging go beyond multiculturalism ( Castle. 2010 ) . Even though there is limited empirical grounds for clear statements for globalisation. there likely are extremely widely distributed groups who feel at place everyplace such as planetary concern and professional elites might match with this image. But most members of multinational communities fall between these extremes. and likely have contradictory and fluctuating individualities ( Castle. 2002 ) . Decisions This survey explored that a particular instance of cultural psychological science was the survey of how persons respond to state of affairss where they were in passage between their original civilization and another that differed from it in some respects in footings of socialization. particularly within a specific theoretical frame that could use to the specific state of affairs ( Adler A ; Gielen. 1994 ) . There was no individual theory widely accepted by all societal scientists to hold with the outgrowth and prolongation of international migration forms in the universe under globalisation ( Van Hear. 2010 ) . proposing that the modern-day migrating context in which such migrating agreements were realized basically unbroken transforming so that it became progressively unsure ( Landolt and Da. 2005 ) . Although the subject of cultural contact and individual’ alteration has attracted considerable attending in modern-day cross-cultural psychological science. the field has been characterized by a deficiency of theoretical coherency. definitional jobs with cardinal concepts. and individual sample surveies that limit the external cogency of empirical cross-cultural research ( Ward and Kenney. 1994 ) . As socialization is a procedure which takes topographic point over clip. and which consequences in alterations both in the civilization and in the single civilization alterations. it would be ideal o comparison two sets of informations are compared over clip utilizing the same people. However. in pattern. it is impossible in most socialization research scenes ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . Alternatively. a common option to longitudinal research is cross-sectional research in which a time-related variable. such as length of abode or generational position can be used for the generalizability of socialization theories ( Sam et al. . 2006 ) . In general. research workers of migrating surveies need to be cognizant that it is the selective nature of the sample that happens across all migrating research. That is. persons who chose to migrate would be different from those who do non ( Sodowsky. G. . Kwan. K. . A ; Pannu. R. . 1995 ; as cited in Farver et Al. . 1997 ) . Finally. socialization research by and large focused on immigrants assumed to be for good settled in their new host states. As a consequence. the footings migrants or international migrants referred to the same type of migrators jointly. Furthermore. many states were both directing and having states for different types of migrators. or in the procedure of passage from one type to the other ( Castel. 2002 ) . 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Japans Past is Still the Ghost of the Present

Japans Past is Still the Ghost of the Present Free Online Research Papers â€Å"Haunting Past, Haunting Future-Why Japan’s ghost-like Past is still the Ghost of the Present† Japan committed numerous atrocities and crimes during WWII. Such crimes have occurred during Japan’s period of imperialism. Explicit examples of these include: mass killings, torture of POW’s, and looting. These examples have been accounted in events; indeed, the Nanking Massacre has been portrayed as the most notorious example. Ever since Japan’s surrender, compensation and official apologies have been made; however, during the past few years, Japan’s government seemed like they were trying to cover up their crimes. Additionally, the Yasukuni Shrine, which enshrines 14 class-A war criminals, has been regarded as a national monument; Prime ministers Koizumi and Abe have made controversial visits that have angered foreign neighbors. Despite the fact that there seems to be evidence of increasing amiability, the outlook for future relations is unpredictable as it seems. However, there is a chance that one can look forward to a better relationship between foreign nations- Japan and its neighbors. Japan has committed warcrimes for which they have tried to apologise for, but their denials are reflective of curr ent events, as well the outlook for future relationships. The severity of Japanese war crimes reached a pinnacle during the late 1930’s. As mentioned earlier, there was a mass execution of solders and innocent civilians, including women and young children. The death toll amounted to around 6 million murders. Such examples include the Manila Massacre (Philippines) and the Sook Ching Massacre (Singapore). The estimated death toll between these two countries is around 150,000. In China alone, 3.9 million lives were lost as a result of Japanese invasions. However, the controversial focus involves the Nanking Massacre from 1937-1938. Even the death toll cited has yielded radically different estimations; the number ranged from 8,000-430,000. Within the atrocities, Japanese soldiers have also conducted cruel scientific experiments on China’s POWs. â€Å"Victims were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia, amputations, and were used to test biological weapons, among other experiments†¦in some victims, animal blood was injected into their bodies†. As a result, there were 200,000 innocent lives lost due to bubonic plague, cholera, etc. Acts of cannibalism were later carried out in the 1940’s, while evidences of use of comfort women were prevalent, although the cannibalism reports and prostitution can only be proved through accounts from eyewitnesses. Ever since Japan’s surrender to the war, trials of war criminals followed. Some of the war criminals were convicted with death/life sentences, while some were not even given a trial. After the war trials, official apologies have been made; however, â€Å"they official apologies were widely viewed as inadequate by many of the survivors of s uch crimes and/or the families of dead victims†¦many people aggrieved†¦that no apologies has been issued for particular acts of and†¦the Japanese government has merely expressed ‘regret’ or remorse.† Basically, China and Korea want Japan to fully recognize the magnitude of the crimes Japan has caused. Japan has since made compensations to the POWs, but many have stated that Japan has never had the responsibility to compensate each of the victims. During the last 10 years till the present, Japan is still in constant debate between its neighbors. Visiting the Yasukuni shrine has become more prevalent and frequent during Junchiro Koizumi‘s term as Japan’s Prime Minister. The visits have been deemed as controversial because Japan’s leader has been visiting the enshrined souls of those who have been responsible of most of the atrocities. But Japanese people claim that he does not frequent it enough to pay respects. It has been known that Japan’s foreign nations are not quite thrilled with the shrine’s symbolism of Japan’s past military aggression. Japan’s indignant refusal to â€Å"face all of the facts† has been prevalent recently. In 2001, Japan’s neighbors were not content with the fact that Japan had not made an official apology, recounting and confessing all the atrocities that they have committed. Furthermore, textbooks and historic material taught in Japanese sch ools have changed Japan’s purported role as an aggressor during WII. Events, including the Nanking Massacre (or â€Å"incident†, as the Japanese prefer to call it), comfort women, and various other war crimes, have been ignored. Until now, this has yet to be changed. Koizumi’s successor, Shinzo Abe, renounced the issue that women had been forced into sexual slavery. He claimed that there was no tangible evidence that would prove such events had happened during WWII. He is currently trying to alleviate tensions between Japan’s neighbours. It is true that he is a committed visitor, but it does not seem to have a profound effect on China (like it had been years ago). For example, Chinese Prime minister Wen Jiabo has visited Japan to formalize a new cabinet level dialogue on economic co-operation, suggesting more economic opportunities for Japan. On 10th May 07, Beijing avoided direct criticism of Abe when he made his offering to the Shrine. Their purpose was to adopt a more forward looking approach with relations with Japan. A da y later, Japan has responded, citing that they would want to keep improving relations as well, sharing a goal in building common interests. Japan’s indignant refusal to embrace their faults regarding the war crimes has generated debates and controversy, but apparently this issue is starting to change, with Japan/China relations improving. Ergo, the relationship will improve, but because Japan still avoids and denies some of the atrocities, it is evident that Japan’s ghost like past foreshadows the present, as well as the future. Research Papers on Japan’s Past is Still the Ghost of the PresentCapital PunishmentDefinition of Export QuotasGenetic EngineeringPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Effects of Television Violence on ChildrenAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraTwilight of the UAWThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use

The French and Indian War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The French and Indian War - Essay Example At this point in the history of the world, nobody had ever seen a war with the credentials held by the French and Indian War. As the first "global war unfolded, the number of troops grew to record breaking proportions. World War I as we know it might be more properly referred to as World War II. This seven year affair involved two world powers along with a nation-to-be full of pioneers in addition to an entire race of American Natives. The rivalry for American soil between the British and the French was long running and is probably the fundamental grounding for the cause of the war. More generally, the dispute over the Ohio River Valley could sum up the spark that started the war between these groups. There are several occurrences throughout American history which helped define this country. This war was a tussle which eventually led to a successful endeavor by the British to achieve a central position in America and almost completely stripped the French of their claims in North America, the West Indies, and parts of India. The impact of this war greatly changed the American colonies in several meticulous areas. Britain and France, prior to the war, had always been rivals of one another and fought in century-long battles against each other. The French and Indian War erupted from conflicts over the control of the valuable fur trade, and the rich sugar production located in the West Indies. Throughout the war, both countries relied on military assistance from their colonists, and their Native American allies. The three major conflicts which triggered the French and Indian war were King William's War (1689 - 1697), Queen Anne's War (1702 - 1713) and King George's War (1744 - 1748). Following these series of wars, the last conflict between Britain and France for dominance over North America was known as the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763)1. It started as a struggle for control over the "middle ground" territory of the Ohio Valley. This "middle ground" between the French and English colonies in North America was subjugated by the Iroquois Confederacy. At that time, Britain was hailed to be a huge world power. A phrase heard all too often in that time states, "The sun never sets on the British empire." The French and Indian War would lead to a Proclamation that stirred much controversy in the colonies. This sparked a united period of disobedience, which would eventually guide the way to a revolution. The British was the main world power at this time. The French were forced to use "brain over brawn" tactics to survive the upcoming battle. For the most part, French pioneers in the new world were in good with the natives. They had trading posts set up for exchange of fur and goods. Many French even took on the surrounding native culture. Primarily, they did not settle in areas claimed by the Indians to avoid hostility. In fact, they did the opposite; for example, the Frenchmen often helped tribes work out disagreements. The general attitude of the British seemed to lean toward independence from the natives. In turn, the common inclination concerning the French appeared to be that amalgamating

Business Professionals' Perceptions of the Future of Business Tourism Dissertation

Business Professionals' Perceptions of the Future of Business Tourism in Abu Dhabi - Dissertation Example Following this conceptualization, nations have begun to enact policies and programs that have been termed as â€Å"green† for being environmentally-conscious and eco-system-centered (Pearce, Markandya and Barbier, 1989). Probably the best course of action undertaken by the nation-states is the implementation of economic policies highlighting the tourist appeal of their homeland (Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Commission on Sustainable Development, 1999). The apparent and contemporary importance given to tourism as an economic advantage has been accentuated to by the ratification of policies and legislative enactments promoting place-specific recognition and environmental conservation strategies (Brohman, 1996). Reid and Schwab (2006) stated that the concept of sustainable development is currently being upheld by countries around the word as a means to integrate current economic, social and political policies. The said report has been mainly deduced from th e ten-year collaborative study conducted by the University of Arkansas and Yarmouk University in Jordan which centered on the feasibility and viability of undertaking a tourism-centered economic revolution in Jordan. With this in mind, it then becomes likely to consider similar policies in nations belonging to the Middle East Asian region. What then could come from the enactment of policies capitalizing on the natural wonders of Middle East nations such as Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Yemen, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates? What could result from the change of economic concentration from oil drilling and exploration towards tourism? This research paper will serve as... This research is fundamentally about the presentation of proof evidencing the viability of business tourism in the city of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. To note, such evidence shall be, in large part, taken from the learned information provided for by business professionals deemed by the researcher as the most suitable and knowledgeable individuals on the field. Furthermore, this study will likewise provide a discussion on a variety of aspects related to the development of business tourism in Abu Dhabi. Additionally, this thesis will be covering the background principles and concepts in detail, review the relevant contents of the related literature, describe the methodology required for the research, collect the required data for findings, analyze the data with the help of manual and statistical tools, and build the conclusions and recommendation in separate chapters. The scope of study of this research ranges from the key aspects of the development of business tourism in Ab u Dhabi, its major drivers, its advantages and benefits for the economy, down to the social determinants constituted by public opinion and perspective of business professionals related to it. The research will provide an in-depth comparison of the trends appurtenant to the different countries that have undertaken to implement tourism-centered policies so as to present the idiosyncratic factors attributable to Abu Dhabi alone.

Criminal Law - Theft Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Criminal Law - Theft - Case Study Example It takes into account the circumstances and consequences aimed at establishing the liability of the defendant in a criminal charge. It reasons beyond the mental elements to other facts surrounding the commission of the offence charged. CONDUCT CRIME: Where there are conduct crimes, the actus reus in itself is a prohibited conduct. Thus, in a case of dangerous driving, harmful consequences need not be established to prove the defendant's actus reus. [1] RESULT CRIMES: It must be shown that a prohibited result is caused by the conduct of the defendant. In a criminal damage for instance, the actus reus will be that another person's property has been destroyed and or damaged. [2] It is pertinent to state that the conduct of the accused person should be free willed or voluntary in order to incur liability. Acts may sometimes be involuntary. They may result from a wide variety of reasons such as: REFLEX ACTIONS: These are situations where people react to things spontaneously. It can be viewed as a form of automatism but with some dissimilarity. A classical example is illustrated in the case of HILL v. BAXTER [3] where a driver was stung by bees while on steering driving and he lost control of the car. AUTOMATISM: This occurs where the defendant performs an act but is unaware of what he or she doing. It is also the case where due to some external factors; such defendant is not in control of his or her actions. R v. QUICK [4] CAUSATION: At instances where the ascertainment of actus reus requires that certain consequences occur, the prosecution must prove that the defendants conduct actually resulted in the occurrence of those consequences.Thus in a charge of murder, the prosecution must prove that the victim died .[5] It must be established that the victim suffered grievous bodily harm or in a criminal damage, that the property was destroyed or damaged. TWO TYPES OF CAUSATION: 1 Causation of facts which makes use of the "But For" test .R v. WHITE [6] 2 Causation in law for which the defendant's act must be( for example in homicide cases), the "operating and substantial cause of death" R v. SMITH [7] 3 [1958] 1 All ER 193 4. [1973] 3 All ER 347 5 S.18 Offences against the Person Act, 1861 6 [1910] 2 KB 124 7 [1959] 2 All ER 193 MENS REA Mens rea is used to establish criminal liability. The standard common law test is usually expressed with the maxim actus non facit reum mens sit rea, which means that an act will not make a person guilty unless the mind is also guilty. There must be an actus reus accompanied by mens rea to constitute the crime for which the defendant is charged. The exception here is strict liability crimes. Mens rea can be classified into three sub - heads namely; INTENTION - Here the defendant is shown to have foreseen the consequences of his action. RECKLESSNESS - Has been developed in the case of R v. CUNNINGHAM [1957] 2 AER 412. Where recklessness, was said to be requiring a subjective other than objective test. Malice in statutory definition of crime must be considered to require either: (i) The actual intention to inflict a particular harm that was done;

The Feudal System And Society

The Feudal System And Society Feudalism was the prevailing form of political organization in the western and central Europe. It was a system which was managed well with a small number of people; where order was able to stand its ground in the local environment. Unfortunately it didnt favor such a large number of people. Loyalty was only kept between the government and those individuals who had the military power and wealth. This could be seen as partial to the rest of the society because they were considered less important than those in authority. The Feudal System and the Feudal society Introduction According to Platt and Matthews (2000), Feudalism is a military and political system based on personal loyalty and kinship. It was the type of government that existed in some parts of Europe where political power is exercised locally by private individuals rather than through the bureaucracy of a centralized state. Feudalism was adopted in the early middles ages under the Franks to help stabilize Western Europe and expanded under Charlemagne. It is seen as a transitional stage which may follow the collapse of a unified political system. The term has been used to describe political practices in various areas and times in world history for instance in ancient Egypt and in twelfth-century Japan, but the most famous of all feudal patterns emerged in France following the collapse of Charlemagnes empire (Platt and Matthews, 2000). The Feudal System Over the generations, feudalism became a complex web of agreements, rituals and obligations. In general, there are two tiers in the feudal system namely, the lord and the vassal. A written agreement outlined the duties and obligations of the lord and vassal. Typically, the former gave military protection to his vassals and settled disputes among them. The latter in turn offer financial and military aid to the lord. The former usually has massive feudal wealth that includes lands, manor houses and the serfs, collectively called the feudal estates (fief). The feudal lord gives the vassals the feudal estates to supervise as one of the obligations of vassalage. The contract entered into by lord and vassal was usually considered sacred and binding upon both parties (Platt and Matthews, 2000). Origin and Foundation of the Feudal System Feudalism was founded on the relationship between the lord and the vassal, even though the form of the institution varied geographically. The first type of feudalism was observed in northern France, around Paris. The various parts of Europe that practiced this feudal system of government adopted the French version and modified it to fit their local needs. Those who profited from feudalism retained the institution as long as possible, so that well into the twentieth century its vestiges were evident in central Europe and Russia (Platt and Matthews, 2000). Feudalism existed in those areas until the emergence of revolution wiped it off. The chivalric code In the early eleventh century, the chivalric code was used to define the hierarchical feudal social order. The chivalry was a warrior code that was rooted in Christian values. It was an ideal that urged the vassals respect one another and honor their lord. The vassals were expected to be brave, strong and honest and to protect the weak from danger. However, the French clergy modified the code by initiating the Peace of God, a call for an end to fighting at specified times. The clerics also advised the vassal to treat women and peasants carefully. Both the Peace of God and the notion of protected classes were incorporated into the heart of a refined version of the chivalric code by the twelfth century (Platt and Matthews, 2000). The Peasants Chivalry and feudalism protected the interests of the peasants, who constituted the vast majority of the population. The peasants were divided into two categories namely: the serfs and the slaves. The latter was considered to be the personal belongings of the lord, whereas the former was not. In order to live on the lords land, the serfs worked for him. Nevertheless, the serfs had a few legal rights, especially in France and England (Platt and Matthews, 2000). The teachings of the church on the inhumanity of slavery in the eleventh-century Europe helped abolish the practice, but serfdom was deep-rooted. Conflict with the Feudal System Towards the beginning of High Middle Ages, a new trend started to oppose the dominance of the feudal system. Free individuals from many parts of Europe began to pursue their economic goals in various towns. A lot of Europeans migrated to the new urban areas and the population there increased over time. As the towns grew larger and urban life became competitive, the residents formed associations, called guilds, for example, the artisan and crafts guilds. The primary role of these groups is to protect the interests of the town dwellers. The vibrant urban economic life gradually started to clash with the interest of the feudal system. With the objective of preventing the intrusion of the feudal system, urban dwellers founded self-governing towns, called communes. The political independence of the towns stimulated economic growth. Conclusion Feudalism was adopted in the early middles ages under the Franks to help stabilize Western Europe and expanded under Charlemagne. The feudal system was divided mainly into the lord and the vassal. The duties and obligations of the lord and vassal were outlined by a written agreement. Feudalism itself was founded on the relationship between the lord and the vassal. Feudalism was first observed in northern France, around Paris. The chivalry was a warrior code that was rooted in Christian values; it was an ideal that urged the vassals respect one another and honor their lord. This code was later modified by the French clergy in order to pronounce a call to end of fighting. The peasants were a group of people that constituted a large part of the population; they were divided into serfs and slaves and their interests were protected by Chivalry and feudalism. As the towns grew larger and urban life became competitive, the residents formed groups and the primary role of these groups was to protect the interests of the town dwellers. Gradually the feudal system started to vanish as well as the lively economic life the urban had which later gave birth to political independence in the towns.

Julius Caesar Essay: Loyalty and Justice in Julius Caesar

Loyalty and Justice in Julius Caesar    In Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, one must read the text closely to track the shifting motivations and loyalties of each character as the play progresses. An important factor that must be kept in mind while reading is the degree of loyalty, in other words, the degree to which characters act out of a motivation to help others. Throughout the play, each character's current degree of loyalty to others is clearly exhibited by words or behavior – this holds true for the characters of Brutus, Cassius, Antony, Portia, and Calpurnia. The focus on loyalty is critical because before the play ends an even-handed justice is meted out to a number of people who fail to live up to an expected standard of loyalty to others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mark Antony, for example, begins the play strongly loyal to Caesar, and his actions through the death of Caesar in Act 3 are clearly motivated by his desire to support Caesar's cause. Something goes wrong somewhere, though, as by 4.1 Antony is engaged in dividin...